Sains Malaysiana 45(1)(2016): 35–41

Exposure to PAHs and Health Risk Assessment in Three Sewage Irrigations

(Pendedahan kepada PAH dan Kesihatan Penilaian Risiko dalam Tiga Pengairan Kumbahan)

JINSHENG ZHAO, MINGHUA ZHOU* & NA ZHANG

College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China

Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China

Received: 28 July 2014/Accepted: 10 November 2014

ABSTRACT

The sewage irrigation area in Tianjin reached 6 billion m2 in 2003 which accounts for 22% of the irrigated areas. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination caused by sewage irrigation on agricultural land has attracted considerable attention because of their toxic and hazardous risks to human beings. In order to evaluate the health risk of PAHs to farmers in four age groups, a multimedia/multipathway exposure model was applied. The results showed that the chronic daily intake (CDI) of children, adolescents, adults and the aged to the 16 PAH compounds exposure were 2.83, 2.34, 1.44, 1.05 μg·kg-1·d-1, respectively. The non-cancer risk of life long exposure in sewage irrigation was 2.75×10-3 and the cancer risk was 2.49×10-5. From the long-term safety point of view, the health risks caused by PAHs were at a relatively high level. Hence, we suggest that crops of sewage irrigated areas and their distribution channels should be re-concerned by the government in the future city planning.

Keywords: Farmers; health risks; sewage irrigation; PAHs

ABSTRAK

Kawasan pengairan kumbahan di Tianjin mencapai 6 bilion m² pada tahun 2003, mencakupi 22% daripada kawasan pengairan. Pencemaran hidrokarbon aromatik polisiklik (PAH) yang disebabkan oleh pengairan kumbahan di atas tanah pertanian telah menarik perhatian kerana risiko toksik dan berbahaya kepada manusia. Dalam usaha untuk menilai risiko kesihatan PAH kepada petani dalam empat kumpulan umur, satu model pendedahan pelbagai laluan multimedia telah digunakan. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa pengambilan yang kronik setiap hari (CDI) kanak-kanak, remaja, dewasa dan orang tua kepada pendedahan 16 sebatian PAH masing-masing adalah 2.83, 2.34, 1.44, 1.05 μg • kg-1 • d-1. Risiko kanser bukan-pendedahan sepanjang hayat dalam pengairan kumbahan adalah 2.75 × 10-3 dan risiko kanser adalah 2.49 × 10-5. Daripada sudut keselamatan jangka panjang pandangan, risiko kesihatan yang disebabkan oleh PAH berada pada tahap yang agak tinggi. Oleh itu, kami mencadangkan agar tanaman kawasan pengairan kumbahan dan saluran pengedaran perlu diambil kira oleh kerajaan dalam perancangan bandar masa depan.

Kata kunci: PAH; pengairan kumbahan; petani; risiko kesihatan

REFERENCES

Amoako, J., Ansa-Asare, O.D., Karikari, A.Y. & Dartey, G. 2011. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Densu River Basin of Ghana. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 174(1): 471-480.

Aris, A.Z., Lim, W.Y., Praveena, S.M., Yusoff, M.K., Ramli, M.F. & Juahir, H. 2014. Water quality status of selected rivers in Kota Marudu, Sabah, Malaysia and its suitability for usage. Sains Malaysiana 43(3): 377-388.

Ashraf, M.A., Ahmad, M., Aqib, S., Balkhair, K.S. & Bakar, N.K.A. 2014. Chemical species of metallic elements in the aquatic environment of an ex-mining catchment. Water Environment Research 86(8): 717-728.

Ashraf, M.A., Yusoff, I., Yusof, I. & Alias, Y. 2013. Study of contaminant transport at an open tipping waste disposal site. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 20(7): 4689-4710.

Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J. & Yusoff, I. 2012a. Study of chemical forms of heavy metals collected from the sediments of tin mining catchment. Chemical Speciation and Bioavailability 24(3): 183-196.

Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J. & Yusoff, I. 2012b. Chemical speciation of heavy metals in sediments of former tin mining catchment. Iranian Journal of Science and Technology 36(A2): 163-180.

Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J. & Yusoff, I. 2012c. Morphology, geology and water quality assessment of former tin mining catchment. The Scientific World Journal 2012: 369206.

Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J. & Yusoff, I. 2012d. Chemical speciation and potential mobility of heavy metals in soil of former tin mining catchment. The Scientific World Journal Article ID: 125608.

Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J. & Yusoff, I. 2012e. Chemical speciation of heavy metals in surface waters of former tin mining catchment. Chemical Speciation and Bioavailability 24(1): 1-12.

Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J. & Yusoff, I. 2011. Analysis of physio-chemical parameters and distribution of heavy metals in soil and water of ex-mining area of Bestari Jaya, Peninsular Malaysia. Asian Journal of Chemistry 23(8): 3493-3499.

Ashraf, M.A., Maah, M.J. & Yusoff, I. 2010. Water quality characterization of Varsity Lake, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. E Journal of Chemistry 7(S1): S245-S254.

Bakar, A.F.A., Yusoff, I., Fatt, N.T. & Ashraf, M.A. 2014. Cumulative impacts of dissolved ionic metals on the chemical characteristics of river water affected by alkaline mine drainage from the Kuala Lipis gold mine, Pahang, Malaysia. Chemistry and Ecology 13(1): 22-33.

Bakar, A.F.A., Yusoff, I., Fatt, N.T., Othman, F. & Ashraf, M.A. 2013. Arsenic, zinc and aluminum removal from gold mine wastewater effluents and accumulation by submerged aquatic plants (Cabomba piauhyensis, Egeria densa, and Hydrilla verticillata). BioMed Research International 2013: Article ID. 890803.

Barakat, A.O., Mostafa, A., Wade, T.L., Sweet, S.T. & El Sayed, N.B. 2011. Spatial distribution and temporal trends of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments from Lake Maryut, Alexandria, Egypt. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 218(1): 63-80.

Feng, X., Teng, Y.G., Li, J. & Wang, J.S. 2011. Residues characteristics and health risk assessment of PAHs in soils on the shore of Songhua River in Jiamusi City. The South to North Water Diversion and Water Science & Technology 03:114.

Gharibreza, M., Raj, J.K., Yusoff, I., Othman, Z., Zakaria, W., Tahir, W.M. & Ashraf, M.A. 2013. Historical variations of Bera Lake (Malaysia) sediments geochemistry using radioisotopes and sediment quality indices. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 295(3): 1715-1730.

Kim, E.J., Choi, S.D. & Chang, Y.S. 2011. Levels and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soils after forest fires in South Korea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 18: 1508-1517.

Kopecka-Pilarczyk, J. & Correia, A.D. 2011. Effects of exposure to PAHs on brain ache in gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata L., under laboratory conditions. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 86: 379-383.

Lau, E.V., Gan, S.Y. & Ng, H.K. 2012. Distribution and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface soils from five different locations in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 88: 741-746.

Li, G.C., Xia, X.H., Yang, Z.F., Wang, R. & Voulvoulis, N. 2006. Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, China. Environmental Pollution 144(3): 985-993.

Li, X.R., Zhao, T.K. & Yu, Y.X. 2009. Population exposure to PAHs and the health risk assessment in Beijing area. Journal of Agricultural Sciences 28(8): 1758-1765.

Li, X.R., Li, B.A. & Tao, S. 2005. Population exposure to PAHs in Tianjin Area. Environmental Sciences 25(7): 989-993.

Li, Y.L., Liu, J.L., Cao, Z.G., Lin, C. & Yang, Z.F. 2010. Spatial distribution and health risk of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the water of the Luanhe River Basin, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 163: 1-13.

Luo, X.M., Liu, C.M. & He, M.C. 2005. Distribution and origin of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) in the sediments of the Yellow River. Research of Environmental Science 18(2): 48-50.

Maria, L., Jessika, H., Anna, R., Bertvan, B. & Magnus, E. 2013. Chemical and bioanalytical characterization of PAHs in risk assessment of remediated PAH-contaminated soils. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 20: 8511-8520.

Mitra, S. & Bianchi, T.S. 2003. Preliminary assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon distributions in the lower Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico. Marine Chemistry 82(4): 273-288.

Muhammad, W.A. & Salam, A. 2012. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in vegetables and fruits produced in Saudi Arabia. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 88: 543-547.

Nam, J.J., Thomas, G.O., Jaward, F.M., Steinnes, E., Gustafsson, O. & Jones, K.C. 2008. PAHs in background soils from Western Europe: Influence of atmospheric deposition and soil organic matter. Chemosphere 70(9): 1596-1602.

Navarro-Ortega, A., Ratola, N., Hildebrandt, A., Alves, A., Lacorte, S. & Barceló, D. 2012. Environmental distribution of PAHs in pine needles, soils, and sediments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 19(3): 677-688.

Ni, H.G., Eddy, Y. & Zeng, H. 2012. Environmental and human exposure to soil chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydro carbons in an urbanized region. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 31(7): 1494-1500.

Qin, N., Zhu, Y. & Xu, F.L. 2010. The distribution, composition and their determining factors of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in emergent macrophytes in small Baiyangdian Lake. Lake Science 22(1): 49-56.

Qi, W. & Xu, W. 2012. Partitioning and sources of PAHs in wastewater receiving streams of Tianjin. China Environ. Monit. Assess. 184: 1847-1855.

Sun, J.L., Ni, H.G. & Zeng, H. 2012. Ecological risk assessment of parent and halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from an urban river in south China. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 31(8): 1867-1873.

U.S. EPA. 1997. Exposure Factors Handbook: EPA/600/P- 95/002Fa [CD]. Washington, DC 20460. Office of Research and Development, National Center for Environmental Assessment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, sec.1- 17.

U.S. EPA. 1992. Guidelines for Exposure Assessment FRL4129- 5. Washington DC: Office of Health and Environmental Assessment.

U.S. EPA. 1989. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (Vol. I) Human Health Evaluation Manual EPA/540/1-89/002. Washington DC: Office of Emergency and Remedial Response.

Wan, K., Jiang, M., Yang, G.Y., Zhang, T.B., Gao, Y.X. & Wan, H.F. 2009. Distribution characteristics of PAHs in vegetables of typical city in Pearl River Delta: A case study of Dongguan City. Soils 41(4): 583-587.

Wang, N.N., Lang, Y.H., Cheng, F.F. & Wang, M.J. 2011. Concentrations, sources and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soils of Liaohe Estuarine Wetland. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 87: 463-468.

Wi1cke, W. 2000. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil: A review. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 163: 229-248.

Yang, Y., Hu, J.Y. & Tao, S. 2005. Loss of life expectancy analysis for cancer risk in Tianjin area. Chinese Journal of Environmental Sciences 26(1): 69-73.

Yusoff, I., Alias, Y., Yusof, M. & Ashraf, M.A. 2013. Assessment of pollutants migration at Ampar Tenang landfill site, Selangor, Malaysia. ScienceAsia 39: 392-409.

Zhong, X.M. & Li, Z.J. 2011. Geography of Tianjin. Beijing: Normal University Press.

Zuo, Q., Tao, S. & Liu, W.X. 2006. PAHs in surface soils from the western watershed of Bohai Sea. Chinese Journal of Geochemistry 25(1): 667-671.

*Corresponding author; email: zhoumh@nankai.edu.cn